A Different Day Read online

  O'Hanlon, Rosalind. “Recovering the Subject: Subaltern Studies and Histories of Resistance in Colonial South Asia.” Modern Asian Studies 22 (February 1988): 189–224.

  Onkst, David H. “ ‘First a Negro . . . Incidentally a Veteran’: Black World War Two Veterans and the G.I. Bill of Rights in the Deep South, 1944–1948.” Journal of Social History 31 (Spring 1998): 517–43.

  Payne, Elizabeth Anne. “The Lady Was a Sharecropper: Myrtle Lawrence and the Southern Tenant Farmers’ Union.” Southern Cultures 4 (Summer 1998): 5–27.

  Prestage, Jewel L., and Carolyn Sue Williams. “Blacks in Louisiana Politics.” In Louisiana Politics: Festival in a Labyrinth, edited by James Bolner, 285–317. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1982.

  Reed, Germaine A. “Race Legislation in Louisiana, 1864–1920,” Louisiana History 4 (Fall 1965): 379–92.

  Reich, Steven A. “Soldiers of Democracy: Black Texans and the Fight for Citizenship, 1917–1921.” Journal of American History 82 (March 1996): 1478–1504.

  Reidy, Joseph P. “Mules and Machines and Men: Field Labor on Louisiana Sugar Plantations, 1887–1915.” Agricultural History 72 (Spring 1998): 183–96.

  Rieder, Jonathan. “The Rise of the ‘Silent Majority.’” In The Rise and Fall of the New Deal Order, 1930–1980, edited by Steve Fraser and Gary Gerstle, 243–68. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1989.

  Rodrigue, John C. “ ‘The Great Law of Demand and Supply’: The Contest over Wages in Louisiana's Sugar Region, 1870–1880.” Agricultural History 72 (Spring 1998): 159–82.

  Rogers, Kim Lacy. “ ‘You Came Away with Some Courage’: Three Lives in the Civil Rights Movement.” Mid-America 71 (October 1989): 175–94.

  Schultz, Mark R. “The Dream Realized? African American Landownership in Central Georgia between Reconstruction and World War Two.” Agricultural History 72 (Spring 1998): 298–312.

  Scott, Emmett J., comp. “Letters of Negro Migrants of 1916–1918.” Journal of Negro History 4 (July 1919): 290–340.

  ———. “Additional Letters of Negro Migrants of 1916–1918.” Journal of Negro History 4 (October 1919): 412–65.

  Scott, James C. “Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance.” Journal of Peasant Studies 13 (January 1986): 5–35.

  Strain, Christopher B. “ ‘We Walked Like Men’: The Deacons for Defense and Justice.” Louisiana History 38 (Winter 1997): 43–62.

  Thompson, E. P. “The Moral Economy of the English Crowd in the Eighteenth Century.” Past and Present 50 (February 1971): 76–136.

  Tolnay, Stewart E., and E. M. Beck. “Rethinking the Role of Racial Violence in the Great Migration.” In Black Exodus: The Great Migration from the American South, edited by Alferdteen Harrison, 20–35. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1991.

  Tyson, Timothy B. “Robert F. Williams, ‘Black Power,’ and the Roots of the African American Freedom Struggle.” Journal of American History 85 (September 1998): 540–70.

  Vandal, Gilles. “Property Offenses, Social Tension, and Racial Antagonism in Post–Civil War Rural Louisiana.” Journal of Social History 31 (Fall 1997): 127–53.

  White, Christine Pelzer. “Everyday Resistance, Socialist Revolution, and Rural Development: The Vietnamese Case.” Journal of Peasant Studies 13 (January 1986): 49–63.

  White, Walter F. “ ‘Work or Fight’ in the South.” New Republic, 1 March 1919, 144–46.

  Woodruff, Nan Elizabeth. “Pick or Fight: The Emergency Farm Labor Program in the Arkansas and Mississippi Deltas during World War II.” Agricultural History 64 (Spring 1990): 74–85.

  ———. “African-American Struggles for Citizenship in the Arkansas and Mississippi Deltas in the Age of Jim Crow.” Radical History Review 55 (Winter 1993): 33–51.

  ———. “Mississippi Delta Planters and Debates over Mechanization, Labor, and Civil Rights in the 1940s.” Journal of Southern History 60 (May 1994): 263–284.

  Dissertations and Theses

  Burran, James Albert, III. “Racial Violence in the South during World War II.” Ph.D. diss., University of Tennessee, 1977.

  Collins, Gladys Blanson. “Community Activities of Rural Elementary Teachers: A Study of the Community Participation of Negro Rural Elementary Teachers in Louisiana.” Ph.D. diss., New York University, 1953.

  Crosby, Earl William. “Building the Country Home: The Black County Agent System, 1906–1940.” Ph.D. diss., Miami University, 1977.

  Dinwiddie, Robert Carlton. “The International Woodworkers of America and Southern Laborers, 1937–1945.” Master's thesis, Georgia State University, 1980.

  Finnegan, Terence Robert. “ ‘At the Hands of Parties Unknown’: Lynching in Mississippi and South Carolina, 1881–1940.” Ph.D. diss., University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1993.

  Hill, Lance E. “The Deacons for Defense and Justice: Armed Self-Defense and the Civil Rights Movement.” Ph.D. diss., Tulane University, 1997.

  Matthews, Carl S. “American Negro Leadership and World War I.” Master's thesis, University of Virginia, 1967.

  Neyland, Leedell Wallace. “The Negro in Louisiana since 1900: An Economic and Social Study.” Ph.D. diss., New York University, 1958.

  Palmer, Leola. “The Evolution of Education for African Americans in Pointe Coupee Parish (New Roads, Louisiana), 1889–1969.” Ph.D. diss., Fordham University, 1992.

  Rosen, Dale. “The Alabama Share Croppers Union.” Honors thesis, Radcliffe College, 1969. (In file 2A, reel 13, Clyde L. Johnson Papers, in The Green Rising, 1910–1977: A Supplement to the Southern Tenant Farmers Union Papers. Glen Rock, N.J.: Microfilming Corporation of America, 1977.)

  Umoja, Akinyele K. “Eye for an Eye: The Role of Armed Resistance in the Mississippi Freedom Movement.” Ph.D. diss., Emory University, 1996.

  Wheaton, Donna. “Sheriff D. J. ‘Cat’ Doucet and the Black Voters of St. Landry Parish.” Master's thesis, University of Southwestern Louisiana, 1991.

  Williams, Charles E. “A Mighty Fortress: The Black Church as Ancestral Foundation for Black Survival and Civil Rights.” Ph.D. diss., The Union Institute, 1997.

  Index

  Acadiana Neuf, 203

  Accommodationism, 51–52, 180–81, 218 (n. 2), 231 (n. 28)

  Acheson, Meldon, 189, 265 (n. 28)

  Adams, Henry, 13

  Adams, Kenneth, 114

  Affirmative action, 204

  Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA), 87, 93, 96–97, 103–5, 110, 111, 112, 152, 199–200

  Agricultural Extension Service: origins, 76; discrimination in, 76, 77, 80–81, 108, 113, 199, 237 (n. 28);

  and African Americans, 76–80, 123, 151–52, 184, 202, 206, 236–37 (n. 28);

  and plantation owners, 77, 81, 108, 113, 114, 133–35;

  black agents of, 77–81, 123

  Agricultural Soil Conservation Service (ASCS), 152, 199–200. See also Agricultural Adjustment Administration

  Agricultural workers: conditions for in Jim Crow era, 5, 18, 22–28, 36–37, 42–43, 52–53, 223 (n. 28), 229–30 (nn. 10, 14); as activists, 8–9, 15–16, 17, 42, 45–47, 52–53, 57, 78–80, 152–53, 165–66, 184, 261 (n. 28);

  violence against, 13, 15, 17, 19, 31, 33–34, 49, 57, 86, 110–11, 165–66, 224 (n. 28);

  exploitation of, 13, 15, 19–20, 23–24, 26–28, 29–31, 32, 42, 46, 104, 221 (n. 28);

  and federal agricultural agencies, 76–81, 93, 96–97, 102–5, 106–10, 113, 122–24, 133–35, 151–52, 199–200, 236–37 (n. 28), 239–40 (n. 28), 245 (n. 28), 246–47 (nn. 69, 70, 75);

  and mechanization, 135, 136–37, 145, 146, 211–12. See also Landowners, black; Louisiana Farmers’ Union; Plantations

  Alabama, 43, 97–98, 100, 106, 143, 155, 172, 173, 174, 190, 192, 248 (n. 28)

  Alexander, Tom, 19–20, 221 (n. 28)

  Alexandria, La., 58–59, 66, 67, 84, 128, 134, 138, 144, 165, 251 (n. 28)

  Algiers, La., 131

  American Farm Bureau Federation (AFBF), 81, 113, 132–33, 166, 262 (n. 28)

/>   American Federation of Labor (AFL), 83, 100, 243 (n. 28)

  Anna T. Jeanes Fund, 50

  Anticommunism, 99, 167–68, 174, 176, 210, 263 (n. 28), 268 (n. 28)

  Antilynching bills, 39, 56

  Antipoverty programs. See New Deal; War on Poverty

  Arkansas, 11, 46, 164, 222 (n. 28), 248 (n. 28)

  Armed self-defense, 16–17, 57–62, 111–12, 139–40, 170–71, 176, 183, 188–95, 232 (n. 28), 270 (n. 28), 271–72 (n. 28)

  Ascension Parish, La., 135, 136, 148, 162

  Assumption Parish, La., 70

  Aswell, James B., 69

  Avoyelles Parish, La., 95, 98, 101

  Badeaux, R. J., 136

  Bagnall, Robert, 68

  Baltimore Afro-American, 61, 139–40

  Baton Rouge, La., 42, 55, 67, 84, 105, 118, 119, 125, 128, 129, 148, 171, 177, 178, 251 (n. 28)

  Beaumont, Tex., 139

  Beauregard Parish, La., 76, 138

  Beecher, John, 130

  Bell, James, 195

  Benevolent societies, 52, 55–56, 153. See also Community institutions, black

  Bentley Lumber Mill, 165

  Beraud, Joe, 111

  Bernhardt, Joshua, 104

  Berry, Louis, 204

  Bethel Baptist Church, 56

  Betz, R. L., 140

  Bibens, David, 49

  Biddle, Francis, 142

  Bienville Parish, La., 76, 236 (n. 28)

  Birmingham, Ala., 173, 174

  Black Ace (B. K. Turner), 44–45

  Blackman, William, 58

  Black Power, 204, 205

  Blanchard, Newton, 86

  Blues music, 6, 7, 42–45

  Bogalusa, La., 1, 37–38, 82, 83, 146, 149, 191–92, 194

  Bogalusa Self-Preservation and Loyalty League, 83

  Bogalusa Voters’ League, 1, 191–92, 194

  Boll weevil, 59, 65, 76

  Bond, Horace Mann, 60

  Borah, Wayne G., 157, 159

  Bossier Parish, La., 16, 45, 76

  Bouma, Ronnie Sigal, 177, 182

  Bowden, W. George, 134

  Bowman, Sarah, 23

  Boyd, Mary, 182, 189

  Brannon, John, 188

  Branton, Wiley, 177

  Bray, Dorothy, 128

  Brian, L. E., 203

  Brown, Bill, 178, 179, 191

  Brown, Earnestine, 9, 153, 198

  Brown, Harrison, 27, 36–37, 40, 45, 49, 78, 90, 97, 145–46, 151, 152, 153, 208

  Brown, W. C., 45

  Brown v. Board of Education (1954), 166, 169, 198

  Bullis, G. P., 138–39

  Burgaires Sugar, 245 (n. 28)

  Burger, Sharon, 179

  Business owners

  —black: as activists, 9, 67, 117, 153, 179; in Jim Crow era, 38, 49, 74, 75

  —white: influence over communities, 13, 18, 21, 36–38, 86, 92–93, 185–86;

  and black civil rights, 16, 126, 137–38, 172, 176, 185–86, 198, 202–4, 212, 276 (n. 28);

  exploitation of black labor, 23–24, 29–30;

  complicity in violence, 35–36;

  and labor unions, 83, 166

  Byrd, Daniel, 160, 162, 168, 170

  Caddo Parish, La., 2, 30–31, 34–35, 57, 58, 67, 68, 75, 76, 77, 95, 236 (n. 28)

  Caillouet, Adrian, 159

  Calcasieu Parish, La., 135

  Campbell, Guy, 94

  Camp Claiborne, La., 127, 128, 138, 141, 251 (n. 28)

  Camp Livingston, La., 128

  Camp Polk, La., 127, 138

  Carolina Slim, 44

  Carter, Joseph, 1, 183, 184, 189, 266 (n. 28)

  Carville, La., 155

  Castor, La., 165

  Catholics, 10–11, 12, 53–54, 55, 220 (n. 28). See also Churches

  Caulfield, Siegent, 190, 258 (n. 28)

  Caulfield, Thelma, 190

  Chaney, Roy, 203

  Chapmon, J. H., 90

  Cherry, Ruth, 53

  Chicago, Ill., 67, 118, 176, 183

  Chicago Defender, 67, 118

  Chicago Mill and Lumber Company, 90, 165, 197

  Churches, 41, 43, 50, 52, 53–55, 77, 79, 80, 98, 150, 153, 162, 181, 182, 183, 212, 232 (n. 28). See also Catholics; Protestants

  Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), 87, 88–89, 94, 152

  Civil Rights Act (1964), 9, 195, 197, 204

  Civil rights movement: as part of broader freedom struggle, 1–2, 4, 6, 8–9, 62, 80, 206, 218–19 (n. 28), 259 (n. 28); studies of, 5, 116;

  media coverage of, 145, 172–73, 174, 189;

  emergence after World War II, 145–55;

  in 1950s, 153–74;

  in 1960s, 173–74, 175–206;

  limits of, 207, 209–12, 263 (n. 28);

  achievements of, 207–9

  Civil War, 21, 88

  Claiborne Parish, La., 2, 29–30, 236 (n. 28)

  Clarence, La., 68

  Clark, Clinton, 98, 112, 114

  Clayton, La., 165

  Clinton, La., 183, 186, 191

  Cold War, 142, 145

  Cole, Reuben, 98–99

  Colfax, La., 17

  Collins, Corrie, 187

  Commonwealth College, 98

  Communist Party, 97, 101, 114, 167, 242 (n. 28)

  Communists, 8, 86, 97–98, 99, 101, 105–6, 114, 167, 176, 210, 242 (n. 28). See also Louisiana Farmers’ Union; Share Croppers’ Union

  Community Action Programs (CAPs), 201–4

  Community Development Incorporated, 203

  Community institutions, black, 50, 52–57, 98, 100, 144, 150, 153, 162, 181, 183, 212. See also Churches

  Concordia Parish, La., 2, 3; black education in, 32, 51, 209–10;

  economic and political conditions in, 49, 92, 94, 114, 138;

  black activism in, 62, 125, 171, 181, 182, 189, 192, 197

  Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO), 100, 164–65, 166–67, 243 (n. 28)

  Congress of Racial Equality (CORE): in Louisiana, 1, 2–4, 174, 175–206;

  and local activists, 4, 6, 9, 62, 175–76, 177, 178, 179–84, 187, 192–93, 196–97, 205–6;

  role in freedom struggle, 5, 205–6, 212;

  and desegregation, 172, 175, 176, 178, 196, 197, 206;

  founding of, 172, 176, 264–65 (n. 28);

  and nonviolence, 172–73, 175–76, 177, 178–79, 188–89, 192–93, 206;

  activists’ backgrounds, 174, 177–78, 265 (n. 28);

  and voter registration, 175–89, 195–96;

  modifies approach to freedom struggle, 176, 197–98, 206;

  finances of, 176, 205, 274 (n. 28);

  and armed self-defense, 192–93;

  and War on Poverty, 201–4

  Conservatives, 17–18, 21, 86, 87, 113, 126, 145, 164, 166–67, 204, 207, 211, 274 (n. 28)

  CORE Freedom News, 196

  Course of Study for Negro High Schools and Training Schools, 50

  Courts: state and local, 24, 30, 34–35, 68, 167, 168, 185, 209, 228 (n. 28), 268–69 (n. 28); federal, 39, 157, 159, 160, 169, 179, 183, 184, 185, 194, 198, 209, 228 (n. 28), 268–69 (n. 28). See also U.S. Supreme Court

  Crain, Willie, 52

  Crisis, 61, 68–69

  Crop lien system, 21, 26–27, 29, 109, 153. See also Peonage

  Crowder, Enoch, 71

  Crown-Zellerbach Corporation, 148, 149

  Crutcher, J. H., 95, 119

  Curet, A. B., 123

  Cyprian, Nelson, 151

  Dace, V. R., 140

  Dacus, Sol, 83

  Dallet, Peggy, 98, 104, 114

  D’Amico, Sam J., 35

  Daniel, Ester Lee, 186

  Davenport, H. George, 75

  Davis, Dora B., 55

  Davis, Jetson, 266 (n. 28)

  Davis, Morton Hobbs, 165

  Davis, Rudolph, 183

  Deacons for Defense and Justice, 192, 193, 194, 258 (n. 28), 271 (n. 28)

  De Jean, Albert, 102

  Delta Shipbuilding Company, 126, 138

 
; Democratic Party, 16–18, 39, 87, 88, 142, 143, 145, 163, 208, 264 (n. 28)

  Dennis, Dave, 193

  DePriest, Oscar, 67, 183

  Desegregation: of schools, 166–67, 169–70, 171, 180, 194, 198, 209–10, 271–72 (n. 28); of public accommodations, 172–73, 175, 176, 177, 178, 181, 182, 195, 196–97

  De Soto Parish, La., 90

  Dillard University, 150

  Disfranchisement, 7, 42, 116, 125, 138, 144, 146, 204, 231 (n. 28); mechanisms for, 18, 20, 161–64, 168–69, 178, 183, 184, 185, 186, 187–88, 208;

  and black powerlessness, 34, 57. See also Political activism, black: for political participation; Voter registration

  Dishman, Leola, 90

  Domestic workers, 5, 22, 38, 47–48, 93, 101, 117, 129, 135, 152–53

  Donnells, William L., 243 (n. 28)

  Double V campaign, 116, 124–25

  Doucet, D. J., 103, 110, 163

  Dougherty, Malcolm, 166

  Dow Chemical Company, 148

  Du Bois, W. E. B., 61, 68–69, 81

  East Baton Rouge Parish, La., 148, 162, 236 (n. 28)

  East Bay, Calif., 126

  East Carroll Parish, La., 38, 76, 140, 153, 162, 164

  East Feliciana Parish, La., 2, 3, 236 (n. 28); black activism in, 52, 55, 180, 182–83, 187, 195–96, 201, 266 (n. 28);

  opposition to freedom struggle in, 168, 185–86, 188, 191, 202–3, 268–69 (n. 28)

  Education, black: white northerners and, 15, 50–51; white opposition to, 31–33, 50, 137–38;

  quality of, 66, 80, 90, 125, 197, 198–99, 209–10, 226 (n. 28);

  improvements in, 76, 86–87, 88, 90–91, 151, 159, 160–61, 201, 203, 204. See also Desegregation: of schools; Political activism, black: for education

  Elected officials, black, 15, 207–9, 211–12

  Elie, Lolis, 58, 60, 62, 211

  Elks. See Improved Benevolent Order of Elks of the World

  Ellender, Allen J., 39, 94

  Elliott, Tom, 19

  Elloise, Leroy, 152

  Erath, La., 119