A Different Day Read online

  87. Ronnie Moore to Louisiana Staff, memorandum, 1 April 1965, file 16, box 1, CORE—SCDP; “Report of the Convention Fund Raising Committee,” n.d. [1965], 4, file 1, ibid.; Geraldine Maddocks to Miriam Feingold, 11 May 1965, frame 0470, reel 1, MFP (quotation). See also Meldon Acheson to Mother and Dad, 22 July [1965], 2, MAP.

  88. Bouma interview; Clipping, New York Times, 24 July 1966, reprinted on NAACP flyer, file 9, box 1, NAACP Louisiana Field Director Papers, ARC; Meier and Rudwick, CORE, 407–8, 419–20; Fairclough, Race and Democracy, 381–82.

  89. Meier and Rudwick, CORE, 338.

  90. Lewis interview; Wyche et al. interview; Moses Williams interview.

  91. Wyche et al. interview; Martin Williams interview.

  92. Payne, I've Got the Light of Freedom, 180–206.

  Epilogue

  1. See, e.g., Sitkoff, Struggle for Black Equality, 210–35; Morris, Origins of the Civil Rights Movement, 286–90; Dittmer, Local People, 427–30; Eskew, But for Birmingham, 326–31; Lolis Elie, interview by Kim Lacy Rogers, ARC; Rudy Lombard, interview by Kim Lacy Rogers, ARC; and Clifton and Eual Hall, interview by author, THWC—LSU.

  2. U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, Political Participation, 240–43; Eng-strom et al., “Louisiana,” 109.

  3. Miriam Feingold to Russell [Gilmore], 12 August [1966], frames 0532–33, reel 1, MFP; Scholarship, Education and Defense Fund for Racial Equality, “Fact Sheet: Civil Rights Breakthrough in the Deep South,” October 1967, file 9, box 7, SEDFREP.

  4. U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, Political Participation, 217–18.

  5. Ibid., 64–66, 79–80; 115–17; Engstrom et al., “Louisiana,” 109–12; Eunice Paddio-Johnson and Clarence Reed, interview by author, THWC—LSU; Lorin Hall, interview by author, THWC—LSU; Clifton and Eual Hall interview.

  6. The evolution of voting rights law after 1965 in response to efforts to dilute black votes is discussed in Lawson, In Pursuit of Power; Parker, Black Votes Count; and Davidson, “Recent Evolution of Voting Rights Law.”

  7. Engstrom et al., “Louisiana,” 109; Fairclough, Race and Democracy, 466.

  8. Robert and Essie Mae Lewis, interview by author, THWC—LSU; Spiver Gordon, interviewer unknown, ARC.

  9. Ben Garris, “Hooks and Shells,” St. Francisville Democrat, 5 June 1969, 1; Knights of the Ku Klux Klan, “Citizens of Concordia Parish!,” n.d., file 24, box 34, NAACP Louisiana Field Director Papers, ARC.

  10. Ellis Howard, Percy Gordon, and Charles Hall to John Doar, 19 January 1965, file 8, box 1, CORE—SCDP; Gerald Moses, “La. Civil Rights Arm Opens 2-day Hearing,” news clipping, source unknown, n.d. [ca. 1965–66], CORE—SHPP; Daniel Byrd, Special Report, 24 March 1973, 2, file 9, box 4, DEBP; “The Louisiana Education Association's Legal Plan of Action,” n.d., 2, file 6, box 6, DEBP.

  11. Eunice Hall Harris to Mary L. Landrieu, 22 April 1998, vertical file, THWC—LSU.

  12. Paddio-Johnson interview; Lorin Hall interview; Lawrence Hall, interview by author, THWC—LSU.

  13. Lolis Elie, interview by Langston Reid, FCC—NOPL; Lombard interview; Lorin Hall interview; Clifton and Eual Hall interview. See also Chestnut and Cass, Black in Selma, 375–76; Dittmer, Local People, 426–28; and Couto, Ain't Gonna Let Nobody Turn Me Round, 76.

  14. Ronnie M. Moore, “Evaluation of the Citizenship Education Workshop, Plaquemine, Louisiana, December 16–18th, 1966,” 17 February 196[7], 4, file 4, box 23, SEDFREP; Elie interview (Rogers).

  15. “Negroes Seated on Parish School Bd. at Tuesday Meet,” St. Francisville Democrat, 12 January 1967, 1, 4; “Periodic Voter Registration Wins by 6–3 PJ Vote,” ibid., 12 December 1968, 1, 4.

  16. Berman, America's Right Turn, 18, 92, 95; Walton, African American Power and Politics, 131, 337–39; Naples, Grassroots Warriors, 20, 60–61; Martin Williams, interview by author, THWC—LSU.

  17. Wilbert Guillory, interview by author, THWC—LSU; Clifton and Eual Hall interview. See also Woods, Development Arrested, 183–84, 203–4, 269–70. According to Woods, white civic leaders’ preferred solution to the problems caused by the demise of the plantation system was to encourage black people to leave. Thus, in the decades after the civil rights movement, state and local governments in the South kept welfare benefits low, cut back or eliminated social services, and rejected job creation efforts to provide African Americans with few reasons for staying in the region.

  18. Bureau of the Census, 1990 Census of Population, Social and Economic Characteristics, Louisiana, Section 1, 93; Lombard interview; Clifton and Eual Hall interview.

  19. Martin Williams interview; Paddio-Johnson and Reed interview; Lewis interview; Guillory interview; Lorin Hall interview; Eunice Hall Harris interview; Lola Stallworth and Moses Williams, interviews by author, THWC—LSU; Clifton and Eual Hall interview.

  Bibliography

  Manuscript Collections

  Atlanta, Ga. Southern Labor Archives, Special Collections Department, Pullen Library, Georgia State University International Woodworkers of America Papers

  Baton Rouge, La. Hill Memorial Library, Louisiana State University Agricultural Extension Service Papers

  James B. Aswell and Family Papers

  Bethel Baptist Church Records

  Alexandre Etienne DeClouet and Family Papers

  John Hamilton and Harriet Boyd Ellis Papers

  Richard W. Leche Papers

  Russell B. Long Papers

  Gladys Means Loyd and Family Papers

  Charles Lewis Mathews Papers

  John Burrus McGehee Papers

  Lewis Stirling and Family Papers

  Daniel Trotter Papers

  Turnbull-Allain Family Papers

  Turnbull-Bowman-Lyons Family Papers

  Louisiana State Archives Louisiana State Guard Records

  Charlottesville, Va. Special Collections Department, Alderman Memorial Library, University of Virginia Papers of Jackson Davis

  Madison, Wis. State Historical Society of Wisconsin Meldon Acheson Papers

  Murphy Bell Papers, microfilm

  Congress of Racial Equality, Louisiana Sixth Congressional District Papers

  Congress of Racial Equality, Southern Regional Office Papers

  Congress of Racial Equality, St. Helena Parish Papers

  Miriam Feingold Papers, microfilm

  Ferriday Freedom Movement Papers

  Scholarship, Education, and Defense Fund for Racial Equality Papers

  John Zippert Papers

  Nashville, Tenn. Fisk University Library Special Collections, Fisk University Charles S. Johnson Papers

  New Orleans, La. Amistad Research Center, Tulane University Daniel Ellis Byrd Papers

  National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, Louisiana Field Director Papers

  Rosenwald Fund Papers, microfilm

  Bayard Rustin Papers, microfilm

  Robert Tallant Collection, microfilm

  Alexander Pierre Tureaud Papers

  Archives, Manuscripts, and Special Collections Department, Earl K. Long Library, University of New Orleans John Henry Scott Papers

  Historic New Orleans Collection Federal Extension Service Records, Extension Service Annual Reports, Louisiana 1909–44, microfilm

  Selected Documents from the Louisiana Section of the Work Projects Administration General Correspondence File (“State Series”) 1935–43, microfilm

  Manuscripts Division, Howard Tilton Library, Tulane University Cross Keys Plantation Records

  William Walter Jones Collection of the Papers of Sam Houston Jones

  Harold N. Lee Papers

  Washington, D.C. Federal Bureau of Investigation Headquarters File 100-45768, Louisiana Farmers’ Union

  Records of the COINTELPRO Program

  Library of Congress Farm Security Administration/Office of War Information Collection

  National Association for the Advancement of Colored People Papers

  National Archives Records of the Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service, Record Grou
p 145

  Records of the Bureau of Agricultural Economics, Record Group 83

  Records of the Civilian Conservation Corps, Record Group 35

  Records of the Commission on Civil Rights, Record Group 453

  Records of the Committee on Fair Employment Practice, Record Group 228

  Records of the Department of Justice, Record Group 60

  Records of the Farmers’ Home Administration, Record Group 96

  Records of the Federal Extension Service, Record Group 33

  Records of the Office of Economic Opportunity, Record Group 381

  Records of the Office of Government Reports, Record Group 44

  Records of the Office of Labor (War Food Administration), Record Group 224

  Records of the Office of the Secretary of Agriculture, Record Group 16

  Microform Collections

  Black Workers in the Era of the Great Migration, 1916–1925. Edited by James R. Grossman. Frederick, Md.: University Publications of America, 1985. Microfilm.

  The Green Rising, 1910–1977: A Supplement to the Southern Tenant Farmers Union Papers. Glen Rock, N.J.: Microfilming Corporation of America, 1977. Microfilm.

  Hampton University Peabody Newspaper Clipping File. Alexandria, Va.: Chadwyck-Healey, 1988. Microfiche.

  Operation Dixie: The CIO Organizing Committee Papers, 1946–1953. [Sanford, N.C.]: Microfilming Corporation of America, 1980. Microfilm.

  The Papers of the Congress of Racial Equality, 1941–1967. Sanford, N.C.: Microfilming Corporation of America, 1980. Microfilm.

  Papers of the NAACP. Frederick, Md.: University Publications of America, 1982. Microfilm.

  Peonage Files of the U.S. Department of Justice, 1901–1945. Frederick, Md.: University Publications of America, 1989. Microfilm.

  Selected Documents of Records of the Committee on Fair Employment Practice, 1941–1946. Glen Rock, N.J.: Microfilming Corporation of America, [1970]. Microfilm.

  Southern Tenant Farmers’ Union Papers. Sanford, N.C.: Microfilming Corporation of America, 1971. Microfilm.

  Government Documents

  Bureau of the Census. Twelfth Census of the United States Taken in the Year 1900, Population, Part 2. Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1902.

  ———. Thirteenth Census of the United States Taken in the Year 1910, Volume 2: Population, Reports by States, Alabama—Montana. Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1913.

  ———. Thirteenth Census of the United States Taken in the Year 1910, Volume 4: Population, Occupation Statistics. Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1914.

  ———. Thirteenth Census of the United States Taken in the Year 1910, Volume 6: Agriculture. Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1913.

  ———. Fourteenth Census of the United States Taken in the Year 1920, Volume 3: Population. Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1922.

  ———. Fifteenth Census of the United States: 1930, Agriculture, Volume 2: Reports by States, Part 2: The Southern States. Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1932.

  ———. Fifteenth Census of the United States: 1930, Population, Volume 3: Reports by States, Part 1: Alabama—Montana. Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1932.

  ———. United States Census of Agriculture: 1935, Volume 1: Reports for States. Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1936.

  ———. Sixteenth Census of the United States: 1940, Agriculture, Volume 1: First and Second Series State Reports, Part 5: Statistics for Counties. Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1942.

  ———. Sixteenth Census of the United States: 1940, Population, Volume 2: Characteristics of the Population, Part 3: Kansas–Michigan. Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1943.

  ———. Sixteenth Census of the United States: 1940, Population, Volume 3: The Labor Force, Part 3: Iowa–Montana. Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1943.

  ———. Sixteenth Census of the United States: 1940, Agriculture Crop-Sharing Contracts, Appendix to Section of Special Study—Plantations. Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1943.

  ———. United States Census of Agriculture: 1945, Volume 1, Part 24. Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1946.

  ———. Census of Manufactures: 1947, Volume 3: Statistics by States. Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1950.

  ———. A Report of the Seventeenth Decennial Census of the United States, Census of Population: 1950, Volume 2: Characteristics of the Population, Part 18: Louisiana. Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1952.

  ———. United States Census of Agriculture: 1954, Volume 1: Statistics for Parishes, Part 24: Louisiana. Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1956.

  ———. United States Census of Manufactures: 1954, Volume 3: Area Statistics. Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1957.

  ———. United States Census of Agriculture: 1959, Volume 1: Counties, Part 35: Louisiana. Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1961.

  ———. Eighteenth Decennial Census of the United States, Census of Population: 1960, Volume 1: Characteristics of the Population, Part 20: Louisiana. Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1963.

  ———. Census of Population: 1970, Volume 1: Characteristics of the Population, Part 20: Louisiana. Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1973.

  ———. 1990 Census of Population, Social and Economic Characteristics, Louisiana, Section 1. Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1993.

  ———. Constitution of the State of Louisiana, Adopted in Convention at the City of New Orleans, May 12, 1898. New Orleans: H. J. Hearsey, 1898.

  Fair Employment Practice Committee. First Report, Fair Employment Practice Committee, July 1943–December 1944. Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1945.

  General Assembly of the State of Louisiana. Acts of the General Assembly of Louisiana, Regulating Labor, Extra Session, 1865. New Orleans: J. O. Nixon, 1866.

  ———. Acts Passed by the General Assembly of the State of Louisiana at the Regular Session Begun and Held in the City of Baton Rouge on the Ninth Day of May, 1892. Baton Rouge: Advocate, Official Journal of Louisiana, 1892.

  House of Representatives of the State of Louisiana. Official Journal of the Proceedings of the House of Representatives of the State of Louisiana at the Second Regular Session of the First General Assembly under the Adoption of the Constitution of 1913, Begun and Held in the City of Baton Rouge,May 13, 1918. Baton Rouge: Ramires-Jones Printing Co., 1918.

  Louisiana Department of Labor. A Compilation of General Labor Laws of Louisiana with Citations. Baton Rouge: Department of Labor, 1945.

  Louisiana Historical Records Survey, Division of Community Service Programs, Work Projects Administration.

  Inventory of the Records of World War Emergency Activities in Louisiana, 1916–1920. Baton Rouge: Department of Archives, Louisiana State University, 1942.

  Louisiana State Council of Defense. Minutes of the Meeting of the Louisiana State Council of Defense Held in the State House, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, September 24, 1918. Baton Rouge: Ramires-Jones Printing Co., 1918.

  State Department of Education of Louisiana. Facilities for Veterans’ Education and Training in Louisiana. State Department of Education of Louisiana Bulletin No. 607. Baton Rouge: State Department of Education of Louisiana, 1946.

  ———. Ninety-Second Annual Report for the Session, 1940–1941. State Department of Education of Louisiana Bulletin No. 458. Baton Rouge: State Department of Education of Louisiana, 1941.

  ———. Organizational Study, St. Helena Parish, Section II—Negro Schools. State Department of Education of Louisiana Bulletin No. 549. Baton Rouge: State Department of Education, March 1945.

  ———. State Course of Study for Negro High Schools and Training Schools. State Department of Education of Louisiana Bulletin No. 212. Baton Rouge: State Department of Education, September 1931.

  U.S. Commission on Civil Rights. Political Participation: A Study of the Participation by Negroes in the Electoral and Political Processes in 10 Southern States since Passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965. Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1968.

  U.S. Department of Agriculture. Yearbook of Agriculture 1930. Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1930.

  ———. Crops and Markets, Volume 19, Number 5. Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1942.

  ———. Parade of Progress: Negro Far
m Families. U.S. Department of Agriculture Production and Marketing Division Bulletin No. 5. December 1949.

  U.S. Department of Labor, Division of Economics. Negro Migration in 1916–1917. Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1919.

  U.S. Department of Labor, Division of Negro Economics. The Negro at Work during the World War and during Reconstruction. Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1920.

  U.S. Senate. Report and Testimony of the Select Committee of the United States Senate to Investigate the Causes of the Removal of the Negroes from the Southern States to the Northern States. 46th Cong., 2d sess., 1880. S. Rept. 693.

  Work magazine. Baton Rouge: Louisiana Works Progress Administration, various dates, 1930s.

  Interviews

  Baton Rouge, La. T. Harry Williams Center for Oral History, Louisiana State University Ronnie Sigal Bouma, interview by author, tape recording, 24 October 1998

  Harrison and Earnestine Brown, interview by author, tape recording, 25 November 1996

  Wilbert Guillory, interview by author, tape recording, 25 June 1998

  Clifton and Eual Hall, interview by author, tape recording, 21 June 1998

  Lawrence Hall, interview by author, tape recording, 20 June 1998

  Lorin Hall, interview by author, tape recording, 20 June 1998

  Eunice Hall Harris, interview by author, tape recording, 6 June 1998

  J. K. Haynes, interview by Miranda Kombert, tape recording, 15 March 1995

  Johnnie Jones Sr., interview by Mary Hebert, transcript, 1 September 1993

  Robert and Essie Mae Lewis, interview by author, tape recording, 25 November 1996